NAMA : RETNO MARLIANA
NPM : 20021_061_121
KELAS : KB-P.06.1
Kemiskinan & Kelaparan di Indonesia- Upaya 'Bandung Peduli' untuk Turut Mengatasinya
PALING sedikit 23,63 juta penduduk Indonesia terancam kelaparan saat ini, di antaranya 4,35 juta tinggal di Jawa Barat. Ancaman kelaparan ini akan semakin berat, dan jumlahnya akan bertambah banyak, seiring dengan Mereka yang terancam kelaparan adalah penduduk yang pengeluaran per kapita sebulannya di bawah Rp 30.000,00. Di antara orang-orang yang terancam kelaparan, sebanyak 272.198 penduduk Indonesia, berada dalam keadaan paling mengkhawatirkan. Dari jumlah itu, sebanyak 50.333 berasal dari Jawa Barat, di antaranya 10.430 orang tinggal di Kabupaten Bandung dan 15.334 orang tinggal di Kabupaten Garut. Mereka yang digolongkan terancam kelaparan dengan keadaan paling mengkhawatirkan adalah penduduk yang pengeluaran per kapitanya di bawah Rp 15.000,00 sebulan. Angka-angka ancaman kelaparan itu dapat disimak dalam laporan Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional 1996 dalam buku "Pengeluaran untuk Konsumsi Penduduk Indonesia 1996" yang dipublikasikan Biro Pusat Statistik, dan buku "Data Sosial Ekonomi Masyarakat Jawa Barat Tahun 1996" yang dipublikasikan Kantor Statistik Provinsi Jawa Barat. Karena data dalam laporan itu diperoleh pada tahun 1996, saat Indonesia belum terpuruk dalam krisis ekonomi, maka sudah selayaknya perlu disimak dengan lebh hati-hati. Salah satu rambu kehati-hatian yang diperlukan adalah keadaan Indonesia saat ini yang ditandai dengan meroketnya harga, sedangkan pendapatan penduduk merosot yang antara lain disebabkan oleh banyaknya orang yang terkena PHK. Ada kemungkinan angka tahun 1996 itu lebih baik daripada keadaan Indonesia 1998. (Pada saat makalah ini ditulis, penulis belum membaca buku "Statistik Kesejahteraan Rakyat 1997" yang diterbi_tkan BPS, Maret 1998)._Dalam keadaan yang begitu berat, sebagian penduduk Indonesia terpaksa mengais sah untuk mempertahankan hidupnya, seperti terpang dalam cover majalah internasional Newsweek, 27 Juli 1998, dan Pikiran Rakyat, 6 Agustus 1998.
Sabtu, 23 Februari 2008
tugasblog7
Neolithicum sarkofagus
paleolitik flinstone
lingga,desasalam,magelang
oora opal arabicalligraphy
peninggalan kerajaan punawarman neolithik
paleolitik flinstone
lingga,desasalam,magelang
oora opal arabicalligraphy
peninggalan kerajaan punawarman neolithik
tugasblog6
NAMA : RETNO MARLIANA
NPM : 20032_061_121
KELAS : KB-P.06.1
BLOG
Istilah
Blog merupakan singkatan dari "web log" adalah bentuk aplikasi web yang menyerupai tulisan-tulisan (yang dimuat sebagai posting) pada sebuah halaman web umum. Posting-posting tersebut seringkali dimuat dalam urutan secara terbalik (isi terbaru dahulu baru kemudian diikuti isi yang lebih lama), meskipun tidak selamanya demikian. Situs web semacam itu biasanya dapat diakses oleh semua pengguna internet sesuai dengan topik dan tujuan dari si pengguna blog tersebut.
Sejarah
Media blog pertama kali dipopulerkan oleh Blogger.com, yang dimiliki oleh PyraLab sebelum akhirnya PyraLab diakuisi oleh Google.Com pada akhir tahun 2002 yang lalu. Semenjak itu, banyak terdapat aplikasi-aplikasi yang bersifat sumber terbuka yang diperuntukkan kepada perkembangan para penulis blog tersebut.
Blog mempunyai fungsi yang sangat beragam, dari sebuah catatan harian, media publikasi dalam sebuah kampanye politik, sampai dengan program-program media dan perusahaan-perusahaan. Sebagian blog dipelihara oleh seorang penulis tunggal, sementara sebagian lainnya oleh beberapa penulis. Banyak juga weblog yang memiliki fasilitas interaksi dengan para pengunjungnya, yang dapat memperkenankan para pengunjungnya untuk meninggalkan komentar atas isi dari tulisan yang dipublikasikan, namun demikian ada juga yang yang sebaliknya atau yang bersifat non-interaktif.
Situs-situs web yang saling berkaitan berkat weblog, atau secara total merupakan kumpulan weblog sering disebut sebagai blogosphere. Bilamana sebuah kumpulan gelombang aktivitas, informasi dan opini yang sangat besar berulang kali muncul untuk beberapa subyek atau sangat kontroversial terjadi dalam blogosphere, maka hal itu sering disebut sebagai blogstorm atau badai blog.
Komunitas
Karena semakin banyaknya pengguna fasilitas blog dan seringnya para pengguna blog yang sering berkunjung ke blog lain, maka lazim dibentuk sebuah organisasi atau komunitas kumpulan blogger.
Jenis-jenis blog
Blog politik: Tentang berita, politik, aktivis, dan semua persoalan berbasis blog (Seperti kampanye).
Blog pribadi: Disebut juga buku harian online yang berisikan tentang pengalaman keseharian seseorang, keluhan, puisi atau syair, gagasan jahat, dan perbincangan teman.
Blog bertopik: Blog yang membahas tentang sesuatu, dan fokus pada bahasan tertentu
Blog kesehatan: Lebih spesifik tentang kesehatan. Blog kesehatan kebanyakan berisi tentang keluhan pasien, berita kesehatan terbaru, keterangan-ketarangan tentang kesehatan, dll.
Blog sastra: Lebih dikenal sebagai litblog (Literary blog).
Blog perjalanan: Fokus pada bahasan cerita perjalanan yang menceritakan keterangan-keterangan tentang perjalanan/traveling.
Blog riset: Persoalan tentang akademis seperti berita riset terbaru.
Blog hukum: Persoalan tentang hukum atau urusan hukum; disebut juga dengan blawgs (Blog Laws).
Blog media: Berfokus pada bahasan kebohongan atau ketidakkonsistensi media massa; biasanya hanya untuk koran atau jaringan televisi
Blog agama: Membahas tentang agama
Blog pendidikan: Biasanya ditulis oleh pelajar atau guru.
Blog kebersamaan: Topik lebih spesifik ditulis oleh kelompok tertentu.
Blog petunjuk (directory): Berisi ratusan link halaman website.
Blog bisnis: Digunakan oleh pegawai atau wirausahawan untuk kegiatan promosi bisnis mereka
Blog pengejawantahan: Fokus tentang objek diluar manusia; seperti anjing
Blog pengganggu (spam): Digunakan untuk promosi bisnis affiliate; juga dikenal sebagai splogs (Spam Blog)
Budaya populer
Ngeblog (istilah bahasa Indonesia untuk blogging) harus dilakukan hampir setiap waktu untuk mengetahui eksistensi dari pemilik blog. Juga untuk mengetahui sejauh mana blog dirawat (mengganti template) atau menambah artikel. Sekarang ada lebih 10 juta blog yang bisa ditemukan di Internet. Dan masih bisa berkembang lagi, karena saat ini ada banyak sekali software, tool, dan aplikasi Internet lain yang mempermudah para blogger (sebutan pemilik blog) untuk merawat blognya.
Resiko kejahatan
Karena blog sering digunakan untuk menulis aktivitas sehari-hari yang terjadi pada penulisnya, ataupun merefleksikan pandangan-pandangan penulisnya tentang berbagai macam topik yang terjadi dan untuk berbagi informasi - blog menjadi sumber informasi bagi para hacker, pencuri identitas, mata-mata, dan lain sebagainya. Banyak berkas-berkas rahasia dan penulisan isu sensitif ditemukan dalam blog-blog. Hal ini berakibat dipecatnya seseorang dari pekerjaannya, diblokir aksesnya, didenda, dan bahkan ditangkap.
NPM : 20032_061_121
KELAS : KB-P.06.1
BLOG
Istilah
Blog merupakan singkatan dari "web log" adalah bentuk aplikasi web yang menyerupai tulisan-tulisan (yang dimuat sebagai posting) pada sebuah halaman web umum. Posting-posting tersebut seringkali dimuat dalam urutan secara terbalik (isi terbaru dahulu baru kemudian diikuti isi yang lebih lama), meskipun tidak selamanya demikian. Situs web semacam itu biasanya dapat diakses oleh semua pengguna internet sesuai dengan topik dan tujuan dari si pengguna blog tersebut.
Sejarah
Media blog pertama kali dipopulerkan oleh Blogger.com, yang dimiliki oleh PyraLab sebelum akhirnya PyraLab diakuisi oleh Google.Com pada akhir tahun 2002 yang lalu. Semenjak itu, banyak terdapat aplikasi-aplikasi yang bersifat sumber terbuka yang diperuntukkan kepada perkembangan para penulis blog tersebut.
Blog mempunyai fungsi yang sangat beragam, dari sebuah catatan harian, media publikasi dalam sebuah kampanye politik, sampai dengan program-program media dan perusahaan-perusahaan. Sebagian blog dipelihara oleh seorang penulis tunggal, sementara sebagian lainnya oleh beberapa penulis. Banyak juga weblog yang memiliki fasilitas interaksi dengan para pengunjungnya, yang dapat memperkenankan para pengunjungnya untuk meninggalkan komentar atas isi dari tulisan yang dipublikasikan, namun demikian ada juga yang yang sebaliknya atau yang bersifat non-interaktif.
Situs-situs web yang saling berkaitan berkat weblog, atau secara total merupakan kumpulan weblog sering disebut sebagai blogosphere. Bilamana sebuah kumpulan gelombang aktivitas, informasi dan opini yang sangat besar berulang kali muncul untuk beberapa subyek atau sangat kontroversial terjadi dalam blogosphere, maka hal itu sering disebut sebagai blogstorm atau badai blog.
Komunitas
Karena semakin banyaknya pengguna fasilitas blog dan seringnya para pengguna blog yang sering berkunjung ke blog lain, maka lazim dibentuk sebuah organisasi atau komunitas kumpulan blogger.
Jenis-jenis blog
Blog politik: Tentang berita, politik, aktivis, dan semua persoalan berbasis blog (Seperti kampanye).
Blog pribadi: Disebut juga buku harian online yang berisikan tentang pengalaman keseharian seseorang, keluhan, puisi atau syair, gagasan jahat, dan perbincangan teman.
Blog bertopik: Blog yang membahas tentang sesuatu, dan fokus pada bahasan tertentu
Blog kesehatan: Lebih spesifik tentang kesehatan. Blog kesehatan kebanyakan berisi tentang keluhan pasien, berita kesehatan terbaru, keterangan-ketarangan tentang kesehatan, dll.
Blog sastra: Lebih dikenal sebagai litblog (Literary blog).
Blog perjalanan: Fokus pada bahasan cerita perjalanan yang menceritakan keterangan-keterangan tentang perjalanan/traveling.
Blog riset: Persoalan tentang akademis seperti berita riset terbaru.
Blog hukum: Persoalan tentang hukum atau urusan hukum; disebut juga dengan blawgs (Blog Laws).
Blog media: Berfokus pada bahasan kebohongan atau ketidakkonsistensi media massa; biasanya hanya untuk koran atau jaringan televisi
Blog agama: Membahas tentang agama
Blog pendidikan: Biasanya ditulis oleh pelajar atau guru.
Blog kebersamaan: Topik lebih spesifik ditulis oleh kelompok tertentu.
Blog petunjuk (directory): Berisi ratusan link halaman website.
Blog bisnis: Digunakan oleh pegawai atau wirausahawan untuk kegiatan promosi bisnis mereka
Blog pengejawantahan: Fokus tentang objek diluar manusia; seperti anjing
Blog pengganggu (spam): Digunakan untuk promosi bisnis affiliate; juga dikenal sebagai splogs (Spam Blog)
Budaya populer
Ngeblog (istilah bahasa Indonesia untuk blogging) harus dilakukan hampir setiap waktu untuk mengetahui eksistensi dari pemilik blog. Juga untuk mengetahui sejauh mana blog dirawat (mengganti template) atau menambah artikel. Sekarang ada lebih 10 juta blog yang bisa ditemukan di Internet. Dan masih bisa berkembang lagi, karena saat ini ada banyak sekali software, tool, dan aplikasi Internet lain yang mempermudah para blogger (sebutan pemilik blog) untuk merawat blognya.
Resiko kejahatan
Karena blog sering digunakan untuk menulis aktivitas sehari-hari yang terjadi pada penulisnya, ataupun merefleksikan pandangan-pandangan penulisnya tentang berbagai macam topik yang terjadi dan untuk berbagi informasi - blog menjadi sumber informasi bagi para hacker, pencuri identitas, mata-mata, dan lain sebagainya. Banyak berkas-berkas rahasia dan penulisan isu sensitif ditemukan dalam blog-blog. Hal ini berakibat dipecatnya seseorang dari pekerjaannya, diblokir aksesnya, didenda, dan bahkan ditangkap.
tugasblog5
NAMA : RETNO MARLIANA
NPM : 20032_061_121
KELAS : KB-P.061
TSUNAMI
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea earthquake that occurred at 00:58:53 UTC December 26, 2004, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The earthquake triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing more than 225,000 people in eleven countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 meters (100 feet). It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand were hardest hit.
With a magnitude of between 9.1 and 9.3, it is the second largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph. This earthquake had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 cm (0.5 inches)d triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska.
The disaster is known by the scientific community as the Great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, and is also known as the Asian Tsunami and the Boxing Day Tsunami. The tsunami occurred exactly one year after the 2003 Bam earthquake and exactly two years before the 2006 Hengchun earthquake.
The plight of the many affected people and countries prompted a widespread humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than $7 billion (2004 U.S. dollars) in humanitarian aid.
Earthquake characteristics
The earthquake was initially reported as moment magnitude 9.0. In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.3. Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of Mw 9.1 to 9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that Mw = 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.
The hypocentre of the main earthquake was at 3.316° N 95.854° E, approximately 160 km (100 mi), in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island, off the western coast of northern Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km). The earthquake itself (apart from the tsunami) was felt as far away as Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and the Maldives.
Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor.
Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event, which are invariably associated with megathrust events in subduction zones, have seismic moments that can account for a significant fraction of the global earthquake moment across century-scale time periods. The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake was the largest earthquake since 1964, and the second largest since the Kamchatka earthquake of October 16, 1737.
Of all the seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with the Good Friday Earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great Chilean Earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment. The much smaller but still catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram at right for perspective. Mw denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on the moment magnitude scale.
Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake in Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other recorded earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or greater was off Kamchatka, Russia, on November 4, 1952 (magnitude 9.0). Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean, but the death toll from these was significantly lower. The worst of these caused only a few thousand deaths, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts.
Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (Cascadia Earthquake, western U.S. and Canada, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). These are all believed to have been of greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.
Tectonic plates
The earthquake was unusually large in geographical extent. An estimated 1,600 km (994 mi) of faultline slipped about 15 m (50 ft) along the subduction zone where the India Plate slides under the Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over a period of several minutes. Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 km (250 mi) long and 100 km (60 mi) wide, located 30 km (19 mi) beneath the sea bed—the longest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at a speed of about 2.8 km/s (1.7 mi/s) or 10,000 km/h (6,300 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds. A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s) or 7,600 km/h (4,700 mph), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault changes from subduction to strike-slip (the two plates push past one another in opposite directions). This reduced the speed of the water displacement and so reducing the size of the tsunami that hit the northern part of the Indian Ocean.
The India Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 cm/year (2 inches per year). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands and northern Sumatra. The India Plate slips deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the crust above and trigger melt which exits the earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian plate subducts the Eurasian plate has created the Sunda Arc.
As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the sea bed is estimated to have risen by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 km³ (7 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves did not originate from a point source, as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel, but rather radiated outwards along the entire 1,600 km (994 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile and the Arctic. The raising of the sea bed significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 mm
Energy released by the earthquake
he 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was estimated at 1.1×1017 joules or 26.3 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1502 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However, this is but a tiny fraction of the total work done MW (and thus energy) by this quake, 4.0×1029 ergs (40 ZJ) the vast majority underground. This equates to 4.0×1022 J, over 363 thousand times more than its ME. This is a truly enormous figure, equivalent to 9,560 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima), or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.08×1020 J.
The only earthquakes ever with a larger MW were the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with 2.5×1030 ergs (250 ZJ) and 7.5×1029 ergs (75 ZJ) respectively.Please see USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes.
The earthquake generated seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to 20–30 cm (8–12 in), equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded.
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot below displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. This aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed by the mainshock.
The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth. It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145° east longitude,or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 to 2.4 in).However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 µs per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.
More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to 36 m (118 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (7.9 in). Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4.1 ft) and to have sunk by 1 m (3.28 ft).
In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 m and 5,000 m (3,300 ft and 16,500 ft). The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500-meter (5,000 ft) high thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometers wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as 10 km (7 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.
The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason 1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean. These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami. Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.
NPM : 20032_061_121
KELAS : KB-P.061
TSUNAMI
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea earthquake that occurred at 00:58:53 UTC December 26, 2004, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The earthquake triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing more than 225,000 people in eleven countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 meters (100 feet). It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand were hardest hit.
With a magnitude of between 9.1 and 9.3, it is the second largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph. This earthquake had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 cm (0.5 inches)d triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska.
The disaster is known by the scientific community as the Great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, and is also known as the Asian Tsunami and the Boxing Day Tsunami. The tsunami occurred exactly one year after the 2003 Bam earthquake and exactly two years before the 2006 Hengchun earthquake.
The plight of the many affected people and countries prompted a widespread humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than $7 billion (2004 U.S. dollars) in humanitarian aid.
Earthquake characteristics
The earthquake was initially reported as moment magnitude 9.0. In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.3. Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of Mw 9.1 to 9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology believes that Mw = 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.
The hypocentre of the main earthquake was at 3.316° N 95.854° E, approximately 160 km (100 mi), in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island, off the western coast of northern Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km). The earthquake itself (apart from the tsunami) was felt as far away as Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and the Maldives.
Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor.
Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event, which are invariably associated with megathrust events in subduction zones, have seismic moments that can account for a significant fraction of the global earthquake moment across century-scale time periods. The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake was the largest earthquake since 1964, and the second largest since the Kamchatka earthquake of October 16, 1737.
Of all the seismic moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with the Good Friday Earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great Chilean Earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment. The much smaller but still catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram at right for perspective. Mw denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on the moment magnitude scale.
Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake in Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other recorded earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or greater was off Kamchatka, Russia, on November 4, 1952 (magnitude 9.0). Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean, but the death toll from these was significantly lower. The worst of these caused only a few thousand deaths, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts.
Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868 (Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American Plate) and 1700 (Cascadia Earthquake, western U.S. and Canada, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American Plate). These are all believed to have been of greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time.
Tectonic plates
The earthquake was unusually large in geographical extent. An estimated 1,600 km (994 mi) of faultline slipped about 15 m (50 ft) along the subduction zone where the India Plate slides under the Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over a period of several minutes. Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 km (250 mi) long and 100 km (60 mi) wide, located 30 km (19 mi) beneath the sea bed—the longest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at a speed of about 2.8 km/s (1.7 mi/s) or 10,000 km/h (6,300 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds. A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s) or 7,600 km/h (4,700 mph), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault changes from subduction to strike-slip (the two plates push past one another in opposite directions). This reduced the speed of the water displacement and so reducing the size of the tsunami that hit the northern part of the Indian Ocean.
The India Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 cm/year (2 inches per year). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands and northern Sumatra. The India Plate slips deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the crust above and trigger melt which exits the earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian plate subducts the Eurasian plate has created the Sunda Arc.
As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the sea bed is estimated to have risen by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 km³ (7 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves did not originate from a point source, as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel, but rather radiated outwards along the entire 1,600 km (994 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile and the Arctic. The raising of the sea bed significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 mm
Energy released by the earthquake
he 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was estimated at 1.1×1017 joules or 26.3 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1502 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However, this is but a tiny fraction of the total work done MW (and thus energy) by this quake, 4.0×1029 ergs (40 ZJ) the vast majority underground. This equates to 4.0×1022 J, over 363 thousand times more than its ME. This is a truly enormous figure, equivalent to 9,560 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million times that of Hiroshima), or about 370 years of energy use in the United States at 2005 levels of 1.08×1020 J.
The only earthquakes ever with a larger MW were the 1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with 2.5×1030 ergs (250 ZJ) and 7.5×1029 ergs (75 ZJ) respectively.Please see USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes.
The earthquake generated seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to 20–30 cm (8–12 in), equivalent to the effect of the tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded.
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 1 cm in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot below displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. This aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed by the mainshock.
The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth. It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145° east longitude,or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 to 2.4 in).However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 µs per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.
More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to 36 m (118 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (7.9 in). Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4.1 ft) and to have sunk by 1 m (3.28 ft).
In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 m and 5,000 m (3,300 ft and 16,500 ft). The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500-meter (5,000 ft) high thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometers wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as 10 km (7 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.
The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason 1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean. These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami. Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.
tugasblog4
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YOU RAISE ME UP
By Josh Groban
When I am down and, oh my soul, so weary
When troubles come and my heart burdened be
Then, I am still and wait here in the silence
Until you come and sit awhile with me
You raise me up, so I can stand on mountains
You raise me up, so walk on stormy seas
I am strong, when I am on your shoulders
You raise me up: to more than I can be
MANDY
By Westlife
I remember allmy life
Raining down as cold as ice
Shadows of a man
A face through a window
Crying in the night
The night goes into
Morning, just another day
Happy people pass my way
Looking in their eyes
I see a memory
I never realized
How happy you made me oh Mandy
Well you came and you gave without taking
But I sent you away, oh Mandy
Well you kissed me and you stopped me from shaking
And I need youy today,oh Mandy
I’m standing on the edge of time
I walked away when love was mine
Caught up in a world of uphill climbing
The tears are on my mind
And nothing is rhyming, oh Mandy
Yesterday’s a dream I face the morning
Crying on the breeze
The pain is calling, oh Mandy
Oh Mandy won’t you listen to what I got to say
Oh baby won’t you let me throw it all away
Oh Mandy won’t you listen to what I go to say
And I need you today, oh Mandy
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YOU RAISE ME UP
By Josh Groban
When I am down and, oh my soul, so weary
When troubles come and my heart burdened be
Then, I am still and wait here in the silence
Until you come and sit awhile with me
You raise me up, so I can stand on mountains
You raise me up, so walk on stormy seas
I am strong, when I am on your shoulders
You raise me up: to more than I can be
MANDY
By Westlife
I remember allmy life
Raining down as cold as ice
Shadows of a man
A face through a window
Crying in the night
The night goes into
Morning, just another day
Happy people pass my way
Looking in their eyes
I see a memory
I never realized
How happy you made me oh Mandy
Well you came and you gave without taking
But I sent you away, oh Mandy
Well you kissed me and you stopped me from shaking
And I need youy today,oh Mandy
I’m standing on the edge of time
I walked away when love was mine
Caught up in a world of uphill climbing
The tears are on my mind
And nothing is rhyming, oh Mandy
Yesterday’s a dream I face the morning
Crying on the breeze
The pain is calling, oh Mandy
Oh Mandy won’t you listen to what I got to say
Oh baby won’t you let me throw it all away
Oh Mandy won’t you listen to what I go to say
And I need you today, oh Mandy
tugasblog3
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Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, FRS (September 22, 1791 – August 25, 1867) was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of that time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current, and established the basis for the magnetic field concept in physics. He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.
As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion.
Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. Some historians of science refer to him as the best experimentalist in the history of science. The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him, as is the Faraday constant, the charge on a mole of electrons (about 96,485 coulombs). Faraday's law of induction states that a magnetic field changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force.
Faraday was the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life.
Chemistry
The title page of The Chemical History of a Candle (1861)
Faraday earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Davy. He made a special study of chlorine, and discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He also made the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon first pointed out by John Dalton, the physical importance of which was more fully brought to light by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became historically important as the substance in which Faraday detected the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light when the glass was placed in a magnetic field, and also as the substance which was first repelled by the poles of the magnet. He also endeavoured, with some success, to make the general methods of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of special study and of popular exposition.
He invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat.
Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen), inventing the system of oxidation numbers, and liquefying gases such as chlorine. In 1820 Faraday reported on the first syntheses of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and C2Cl4, and published his results the following year.Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.
Faraday also discovered the laws of electrolysis and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms largely created by William Whewell.
Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience.
Electricity
Faraday's greatest work was probably with electricity and magnetism. The first experiment which he recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence pieces, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, July 12, 1812).
Michael Faraday holding a glass bar of the type he used in 1845 to show that magnetism can affect light. Detail of an engraving by Henry Adlard, based on an earlier photograph by Maull & Polyblank ca. 1857.
In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried but failed to design an electric motor. Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation: a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire and a wire extending into a pool of mercury with a magnet placed inside would rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. The latter device is known as a homopolar motor. These experiments and inventions form the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. Faraday published his results without acknowledging his debt to Wollaston and Davy, and the resulting controversy caused Faraday to withdraw from electromagnetic research for several years. At this stage, there is also evidence to suggest that Davy may have been trying to slow Faraday’s rise as a scientist (or natural philosopher as it was known then). In 1825, for instance, Davy set him onto optical glass experiments, which progressed for six years with no great results. It was not until Davy's death, in 1829, that Faraday stopped these fruitless tasks and moved on to endeavors that were more worthwhile. Two years later, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. Joseph Henry likely discovered self-induction a few months earlier and both may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in Italy in 1829 and 1830.
Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around a massive iron ring, bolted to a chair, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.[3] This phenomenon is known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. These in turn have evolved into the generalization known today as field theory.
Faraday in later life
Faraday later used the principle to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators.
In 1839 he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity. Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (voltage and charge) would produce different groups of phenomena.
Near the end of his career Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor. This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see this idea eventually accepted. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields. That mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century.
In 1845, he discovered the phenomenon that he named diamagnetism, and what is now called the Faraday effect: The plane of polarization of linearly polarized light propagated through a material medium can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned in the propagation direction. He wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light". This established that magnetic force and light were related.
In his work on static electricity, Faraday demonstrated that the charge only resided on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them cancel. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.
Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language. However, his mathematical abilities did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. It was James Clerk Maxwell who took the work of Faraday, and others, and consolidated it with a set of equations that lie at the base of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena.
Public service
Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (July 21, 1855)
Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in mines, being an expert witness in court, and the preparation of high-quality optical glass.
As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of light houses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion.
Faraday also was active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July of 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an oft-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink.)
Faraday assisted with planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857.
Education was another area of service for Faraday. He lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in, negatively, on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, chastising both the public and the nation's educational system.
Later life
Faraday in old age
In June of 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday a Doctor of Civil Law degree (honorary). During his lifetime, Faraday rejected a knighthood and twice refused to become President of the Royal Society.
In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Michael Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Court, Surrey free of all expenses or upkeep. This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No.37 Hampton Court Road. In 1858 Faraday retired to live there.
Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on August 25, 1867. He turned down burial in Westminster Abbey, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the Sandemanian plot in Highgate Cemetery.
Miscellaneous
Michael Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery
Faraday gave a successful series of lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames at the Royal Institution, entitled The Chemical History of a Candle. This was one of the earlier Christmas lectures for young people, which are still given each year. Between 1827 and 1860, Faraday gave the Christmas lecture a record nineteen times.
Faraday refused to participate in the production of chemical weapons for the Crimean War citing ethical reasons.
Michael Faraday - statue in Savoy Place, London.Sculptor John Henry Foley RA
A statue of Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Electrical Engineers.
A recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University is named after Faraday.
A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour.
Faraday's picture was printed on British £20 banknotes from 1991 until 2001.
In the video game Chromehounds there is a ThermoVision Device named the Faraday.
The former UK Faraday Atmospheric Research Station in Antarctica was named after him.
Faraday was one of the then eight foreign members of the French Academy of Sciences.
Writings by Faraday
Michael Faraday's signature
Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures. Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813 - 1815.
Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry, John Murray, 1st ed. 1827, 2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842
Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii., Richard and John Edward Taylor, vols. i. and ii.. 1844 and 1847; vol. iii., 1844; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855
Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics, Taylor and Francis, 1859
A Course of Six Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle, edited by W. Crookes, Griffin, Bohn & Co., 1861 PDF/DjVu from Internet Archive
On the Various Forces in Nature, edited by W. Crookes, Chatto & Windus, 1873
Faraday's Diary edited by T. Martin was published in eight volumes, 1932 - 1936
Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday's Travels in Europe 1813-1815, edited by B. Bowers and L. Symons, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1991
The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, edited by F. A. J. L. James, INSPEC, Inc., volume 1, 1991; volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999
Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London ; Glasgow : R. Griffin, 1860.
The liquefaction of gases Edinburgh: W. F. Clay, 1896.
The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836-1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899.
Quotations
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Michael Faraday
"Nothing is too wonderful to be true if it be consistent with the laws of nature, and in such things as these, experiment is the best test of such consistency.”
"Work. Finish. Publish." — his well-known advice to the young William Crookes
"The important thing is to know how to take all things quietly."
Regarding the hereafter, "Speculations? I have none. I am resting on certainties. I know whom I have believed and am persuaded that he is able to keep that which I have committed unto him against that day."
"Next Sabbath day (the 22nd) I shall complete my 70th year. I can hardly think of myself so old."
Above the doorways of the Pfahler Hall of Science at Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania, there is a stone inscription of a quote attributed to Michael Faraday which reads "but still try, for who knows what is possible..."
"One day sir, you may tax it." Faraday's reply to William Gladstone, then British Minister of Finance, when asked of the practical value of electricity.
"If you would cause your view ... to be acknowledged by scientific men; you would do a great service to science. If you would even get them to say yes or no to your conclusions it would help to clear the future progress. I believe some hesitate because they do not like their thoughts disturbed."
Cultural References
In the American television drama Lost, there is a character named Daniel Faraday, who is a scientist on a purported research mission to the island around which the show is centered; this island has exhibited heretofore unexplained magnetic and electromagnetic anomalies/properties. Lost executive producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse have called Daniel Faraday "an obvious shout-out to Michael Faraday, scientist and physicist," fitting since Faraday's work dealt largely with electromagnetism.
Early life
Michael Faraday from a photograph by John Watkins, British Library
Michael Faraday was born in Newington Butts, part of South London, England. His family was not well off. His father, James, was a member of the Sandemanian sect of Christianity. James Faraday had come to London ca 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been the village blacksmith. The young Michael Faraday, one of four children, having only the most basic of school educations, had to largely educate himself. At fourteen he became apprenticed to a local bookbinder and bookseller George Riebau and, during his seven-year apprenticeship, he read many books, including Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein. He developed an interest in science and specifically in electricity. In particular, he was inspired by the book Conversations in Chemistry by Jane Marcet.
At the age of twenty, in 1812, at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist and physicist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance (one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society). Afterwards, Faraday sent Davy a three hundred page book based on notes taken during the lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favorable. When Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as a secretary. When John Payne, one of the Royal Institution's assistants, was fired, Sir Humphry Davy was asked to find a replacement. He appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on March 1.
In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman. When Davy went on a long tour to the continent in 1813-5, his valet did not wish to go. Faraday was going as Davy's scientific assistant, and was asked to act as Davy's valet until a replacement could be found in Paris. Davy failed to find a replacement, and Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davy's wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal (making him travel outside the coach, eat with the servants, etc.) and generally made Faraday so miserable that he contemplated returning to England alone and giving up science altogether. The trip did, however, give him access to the European scientific elite and a host of stimulating ideas.
His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the Fullerian Professorship of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.
Faraday was a devout Christian and a member of the small Sandemanian denomination, an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. He later served two terms as an elder in the group's church.
Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800-1879) on June 2, 1821, although they would never have children. They met through attending the Sandemanian church.
He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824, appointed director of the laboratory in 1825; and in 1833 he was appointed Fullerian professor of chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to deliver lectures.
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Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, FRS (September 22, 1791 – August 25, 1867) was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of that time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current, and established the basis for the magnetic field concept in physics. He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.
As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion.
Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. Some historians of science refer to him as the best experimentalist in the history of science. The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him, as is the Faraday constant, the charge on a mole of electrons (about 96,485 coulombs). Faraday's law of induction states that a magnetic field changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force.
Faraday was the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life.
Chemistry
The title page of The Chemical History of a Candle (1861)
Faraday earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Davy. He made a special study of chlorine, and discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He also made the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon first pointed out by John Dalton, the physical importance of which was more fully brought to light by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became historically important as the substance in which Faraday detected the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light when the glass was placed in a magnetic field, and also as the substance which was first repelled by the poles of the magnet. He also endeavoured, with some success, to make the general methods of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of special study and of popular exposition.
He invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat.
Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen), inventing the system of oxidation numbers, and liquefying gases such as chlorine. In 1820 Faraday reported on the first syntheses of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and C2Cl4, and published his results the following year.Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.
Faraday also discovered the laws of electrolysis and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms largely created by William Whewell.
Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience.
Electricity
Faraday's greatest work was probably with electricity and magnetism. The first experiment which he recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence pieces, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, July 12, 1812).
Michael Faraday holding a glass bar of the type he used in 1845 to show that magnetism can affect light. Detail of an engraving by Henry Adlard, based on an earlier photograph by Maull & Polyblank ca. 1857.
In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried but failed to design an electric motor. Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation: a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire and a wire extending into a pool of mercury with a magnet placed inside would rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. The latter device is known as a homopolar motor. These experiments and inventions form the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. Faraday published his results without acknowledging his debt to Wollaston and Davy, and the resulting controversy caused Faraday to withdraw from electromagnetic research for several years. At this stage, there is also evidence to suggest that Davy may have been trying to slow Faraday’s rise as a scientist (or natural philosopher as it was known then). In 1825, for instance, Davy set him onto optical glass experiments, which progressed for six years with no great results. It was not until Davy's death, in 1829, that Faraday stopped these fruitless tasks and moved on to endeavors that were more worthwhile. Two years later, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. Joseph Henry likely discovered self-induction a few months earlier and both may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in Italy in 1829 and 1830.
Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around a massive iron ring, bolted to a chair, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.[3] This phenomenon is known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. These in turn have evolved into the generalization known today as field theory.
Faraday in later life
Faraday later used the principle to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators.
In 1839 he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity. Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (voltage and charge) would produce different groups of phenomena.
Near the end of his career Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor. This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see this idea eventually accepted. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields. That mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century.
In 1845, he discovered the phenomenon that he named diamagnetism, and what is now called the Faraday effect: The plane of polarization of linearly polarized light propagated through a material medium can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned in the propagation direction. He wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light". This established that magnetic force and light were related.
In his work on static electricity, Faraday demonstrated that the charge only resided on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them cancel. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.
Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language. However, his mathematical abilities did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. It was James Clerk Maxwell who took the work of Faraday, and others, and consolidated it with a set of equations that lie at the base of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena.
Public service
Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (July 21, 1855)
Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in mines, being an expert witness in court, and the preparation of high-quality optical glass.
As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of light houses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion.
Faraday also was active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July of 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an oft-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink.)
Faraday assisted with planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857.
Education was another area of service for Faraday. He lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in, negatively, on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, chastising both the public and the nation's educational system.
Later life
Faraday in old age
In June of 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday a Doctor of Civil Law degree (honorary). During his lifetime, Faraday rejected a knighthood and twice refused to become President of the Royal Society.
In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Michael Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Court, Surrey free of all expenses or upkeep. This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No.37 Hampton Court Road. In 1858 Faraday retired to live there.
Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on August 25, 1867. He turned down burial in Westminster Abbey, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the Sandemanian plot in Highgate Cemetery.
Miscellaneous
Michael Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery
Faraday gave a successful series of lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames at the Royal Institution, entitled The Chemical History of a Candle. This was one of the earlier Christmas lectures for young people, which are still given each year. Between 1827 and 1860, Faraday gave the Christmas lecture a record nineteen times.
Faraday refused to participate in the production of chemical weapons for the Crimean War citing ethical reasons.
Michael Faraday - statue in Savoy Place, London.Sculptor John Henry Foley RA
A statue of Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Electrical Engineers.
A recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University is named after Faraday.
A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour.
Faraday's picture was printed on British £20 banknotes from 1991 until 2001.
In the video game Chromehounds there is a ThermoVision Device named the Faraday.
The former UK Faraday Atmospheric Research Station in Antarctica was named after him.
Faraday was one of the then eight foreign members of the French Academy of Sciences.
Writings by Faraday
Michael Faraday's signature
Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures. Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813 - 1815.
Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry, John Murray, 1st ed. 1827, 2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842
Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii., Richard and John Edward Taylor, vols. i. and ii.. 1844 and 1847; vol. iii., 1844; vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis, 1855
Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics, Taylor and Francis, 1859
A Course of Six Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle, edited by W. Crookes, Griffin, Bohn & Co., 1861 PDF/DjVu from Internet Archive
On the Various Forces in Nature, edited by W. Crookes, Chatto & Windus, 1873
Faraday's Diary edited by T. Martin was published in eight volumes, 1932 - 1936
Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday's Travels in Europe 1813-1815, edited by B. Bowers and L. Symons, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1991
The Correspondence of Michael Faraday, edited by F. A. J. L. James, INSPEC, Inc., volume 1, 1991; volume 2, 1993; volume 3, 1996; volume 4, 1999
Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other London ; Glasgow : R. Griffin, 1860.
The liquefaction of gases Edinburgh: W. F. Clay, 1896.
The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836-1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters London: Williams & Norgate 1899.
Quotations
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Michael Faraday
"Nothing is too wonderful to be true if it be consistent with the laws of nature, and in such things as these, experiment is the best test of such consistency.”
"Work. Finish. Publish." — his well-known advice to the young William Crookes
"The important thing is to know how to take all things quietly."
Regarding the hereafter, "Speculations? I have none. I am resting on certainties. I know whom I have believed and am persuaded that he is able to keep that which I have committed unto him against that day."
"Next Sabbath day (the 22nd) I shall complete my 70th year. I can hardly think of myself so old."
Above the doorways of the Pfahler Hall of Science at Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania, there is a stone inscription of a quote attributed to Michael Faraday which reads "but still try, for who knows what is possible..."
"One day sir, you may tax it." Faraday's reply to William Gladstone, then British Minister of Finance, when asked of the practical value of electricity.
"If you would cause your view ... to be acknowledged by scientific men; you would do a great service to science. If you would even get them to say yes or no to your conclusions it would help to clear the future progress. I believe some hesitate because they do not like their thoughts disturbed."
Cultural References
In the American television drama Lost, there is a character named Daniel Faraday, who is a scientist on a purported research mission to the island around which the show is centered; this island has exhibited heretofore unexplained magnetic and electromagnetic anomalies/properties. Lost executive producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse have called Daniel Faraday "an obvious shout-out to Michael Faraday, scientist and physicist," fitting since Faraday's work dealt largely with electromagnetism.
Early life
Michael Faraday from a photograph by John Watkins, British Library
Michael Faraday was born in Newington Butts, part of South London, England. His family was not well off. His father, James, was a member of the Sandemanian sect of Christianity. James Faraday had come to London ca 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been the village blacksmith. The young Michael Faraday, one of four children, having only the most basic of school educations, had to largely educate himself. At fourteen he became apprenticed to a local bookbinder and bookseller George Riebau and, during his seven-year apprenticeship, he read many books, including Isaac Watts' The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein. He developed an interest in science and specifically in electricity. In particular, he was inspired by the book Conversations in Chemistry by Jane Marcet.
At the age of twenty, in 1812, at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist and physicist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance (one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society). Afterwards, Faraday sent Davy a three hundred page book based on notes taken during the lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favorable. When Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as a secretary. When John Payne, one of the Royal Institution's assistants, was fired, Sir Humphry Davy was asked to find a replacement. He appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on March 1.
In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman. When Davy went on a long tour to the continent in 1813-5, his valet did not wish to go. Faraday was going as Davy's scientific assistant, and was asked to act as Davy's valet until a replacement could be found in Paris. Davy failed to find a replacement, and Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davy's wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal (making him travel outside the coach, eat with the servants, etc.) and generally made Faraday so miserable that he contemplated returning to England alone and giving up science altogether. The trip did, however, give him access to the European scientific elite and a host of stimulating ideas.
His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the Fullerian Professorship of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.
Faraday was a devout Christian and a member of the small Sandemanian denomination, an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. He later served two terms as an elder in the group's church.
Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800-1879) on June 2, 1821, although they would never have children. They met through attending the Sandemanian church.
He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824, appointed director of the laboratory in 1825; and in 1833 he was appointed Fullerian professor of chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to deliver lectures.
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Raden Ajeng Kartini
The nameof Raden Ajeng Kartini is closely associated with the emancipation movement of Indonesia women. Her activities were confined within the walls of her father's residence in Jepara, Central Java. Yet,her work and ideas have greatly influenced goverment policyand our thoughts and outlook concerning the status and rights of women.
Kartini lived at the time when education, employment outside the home, freedom to decide in marriage,and all such things, were beyond the woman's reach. She saw this with deep sorrow and resentment. Kartini was born in 1879, at a time when schools were still rare, and only meat to be attended by the sons of government official. As a daugther of a regent, a nobleman of the highest rank in the localgoverment, Kartini enjoyed elementary education. Throught her own reading and correspondence with Dutch friends she became acquainted with thegreatest thinkers of the west.
For a girl in her teens at that time, Kartini was very progressive in her ideas. When her father did not allow her to continue her studies in Holland, she was frustrated. However, fortunately, through her brother's comforting and encouraging words she got over her depression, and decided to set up a girls' school within the confines of the regent's residence. She gathered the girls from the neighbourhood, and taught them to read and write, and other useful skills. Another blow befell her when she was required to marry the regent of Rembang, a man of middle age who had already been married. It was against Javanese custom to disobey a father's wish, so she left her work in Jepara to her sister, and went to Rembang. She hada faint hope that as a regent's wife she would be able to accomplish more than as a regent's daugther.
In Rembang, the first thing she did was to set up a school for girls, but even here she did not see thecompletion of her work. She died soon after giving birth to a son, at the age of 25.
kartini's ideas and ideals are expressedin her letters, which have been edited under the title of “Through Darkness into Light”, originallywas written in Dutch, now translated into Indonsian.
NPM : 20032_061_121
KELAS : KB-P.06.1
Raden Ajeng Kartini
The nameof Raden Ajeng Kartini is closely associated with the emancipation movement of Indonesia women. Her activities were confined within the walls of her father's residence in Jepara, Central Java. Yet,her work and ideas have greatly influenced goverment policyand our thoughts and outlook concerning the status and rights of women.
Kartini lived at the time when education, employment outside the home, freedom to decide in marriage,and all such things, were beyond the woman's reach. She saw this with deep sorrow and resentment. Kartini was born in 1879, at a time when schools were still rare, and only meat to be attended by the sons of government official. As a daugther of a regent, a nobleman of the highest rank in the localgoverment, Kartini enjoyed elementary education. Throught her own reading and correspondence with Dutch friends she became acquainted with thegreatest thinkers of the west.
For a girl in her teens at that time, Kartini was very progressive in her ideas. When her father did not allow her to continue her studies in Holland, she was frustrated. However, fortunately, through her brother's comforting and encouraging words she got over her depression, and decided to set up a girls' school within the confines of the regent's residence. She gathered the girls from the neighbourhood, and taught them to read and write, and other useful skills. Another blow befell her when she was required to marry the regent of Rembang, a man of middle age who had already been married. It was against Javanese custom to disobey a father's wish, so she left her work in Jepara to her sister, and went to Rembang. She hada faint hope that as a regent's wife she would be able to accomplish more than as a regent's daugther.
In Rembang, the first thing she did was to set up a school for girls, but even here she did not see thecompletion of her work. She died soon after giving birth to a son, at the age of 25.
kartini's ideas and ideals are expressedin her letters, which have been edited under the title of “Through Darkness into Light”, originallywas written in Dutch, now translated into Indonsian.
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